作者/ Justin Chu
在英國脫歐後，英國自2021一月起與歐盟、北愛爾蘭、以及其他國家之間的貿易協議有了不少異動。2020年一月31日英國脫歐後，歐盟與英國必須面對它們之間最為重要的議題：往後的貿易關係。歐盟毫無疑問是英國最重要且最親密的貿易夥伴之一，於是在英國脫歐的數個月內雙方進行了長久的協商。針對英國脫歐的背景介紹後，本篇會討論各種對應歐盟、英國，以及北愛爾蘭商品標準的不同產品認證，以及這些認證對於往後該地區內外的國際貿易代表著什麼樣的不同以及影響（本文中英國意指英格蘭、蘇格蘭、威爾斯；大不列顛則以英國UKCA官方標準為主）。
2021年一月1日，英國與歐盟間的貿易協議終於敲定並開始生效。在此協議下，英國無需依照歐盟所採用的產品標準；雖然這同時也代表在歐盟較嚴格的動物產品規範下，英國的某些產品將有可能不能外銷至歐盟。雙方在當下同意不設立關稅，但如果任一方在未來偏離雙方共同保障的環境保護措施或是工人權利時，另一方即可設立關稅。
英國在脫歐之前都自動被包括在歐盟與其他國家所有的貿易協議中，在脫歐後也與這些國家談判，並同多數國家延續與歐盟相同的協議。在這些國家之中，除了蒙特內哥羅、阿爾及利亞，和波士尼亞與赫塞哥維納等國外（尤其後二者非WTO會員國），英國皆已完成協商。當然，也有與在歐盟時不同的貿易協議產生，如2020年與日本，以及2021年與澳洲的協議。
本篇所將介紹的產品認證，分別為CE、UKCA，以及UKNI認證。這些認證是本地製造商對於產品的自我宣告，或是在當地合格負責機構審閱國外產品後，才能印上。諸如玩具、電器、以及醫療器具等都需要此認證；化妝品、食物及特定化學產品則不在此限。在2022年一月之前，這些認證在某些程度上可以相互替換，以確保轉移的順暢，後續則會實施更嚴格的區別。本篇將著重於解釋這些不同認證的效果以及對國際貿易所代表的影響。
首先是CE認證，全名Conformité Européenne（法文意即「符合歐盟」），代表所認證產品符合歐盟針對對應產品類別訂定的安全標準。認證過程可以由在歐盟地區內的製造商自行審查，或者由在歐盟地區內的負責機構審查，不過後者需要付費。英國脫歐之前，在英國市場中也是使用CE認證，代表之前國際貿易商們只需要委託一個負責機構且獲得CE認證後，即可在英國以及歐盟市場中上架產品。然而在新的UKCA與UKNI認證之下，國際貿易商們需要針對在各區域上架的同樣產品委託不同地區的負責機構來進行認證，才可以在英國、歐盟、以及北愛爾蘭等地區上架產品。
首先，英國的產品已經不能使用CE認證，在大不列顛地區（英格蘭、蘇格蘭及威爾斯）取而代之的是英國的UKCA認證（英文全名UK Conformity Assessment，意即「符合英國評估」）。這對既往於歐盟及英國只有單一經銷商的國際貿易商尤其重要；這代表著國際貿易商需要在英國與歐盟地區內擁有各別經銷商，或委任當地代理以向認證負責機構取得地區相對應的認證，並且在該地區的市場上架產品。這是由於歐盟不再承認任何英國地區內的負責機構所給予的認證，且代表國際公司往後將支付額外認證費用才能繼續在上述兩地區內販售商品。
UKNI認證即是另一個在北愛爾蘭有效的安全認證，不過只針對由大不列顛進入北愛爾蘭市場上的產品所需。只有沒有CE認證的產品需要UKNI認證，且這個認證需求是單方面的，因為自北愛爾蘭輸入大不列顛的產品只要有UKNI/CE認證即可，不需特別申請UKCA認證。然而，北愛爾蘭承認CE認證，即歐盟產品不需申請UKNI就可上市；歐盟卻不承認UKNI認證，導致北愛爾蘭產品也需要獲得歐盟地區負責機構的CE認證以進入歐盟市場。
以下是認證相關的關係整理：
- 在北爾蘭上市的產品
- 從歐盟地區中，經過歐盟負責機構認證後上市 -> 需要CE認證即可
- 從英國地區或經過英國地區到北愛爾蘭 -> 需要北愛爾蘭當地負責認證機構的UKNI認證
- 在大不列顛地區上市的產品
- 在2021年底前輸入大不列顛市場的產品 -> 有CE認證或UKCA認證皆可
- 在2022年開始時 -> 只接受經過英國地區負責機構認證的UKCA認證產品
- 從北愛爾蘭輸入大不列顛上市的產品則享有無約束待遇（只要有通過歐盟再銷入的CE認證或者UKNI認證即可，不需要UKCA）。
- 在歐盟上市的產品
- 全部需要經過歐盟當地負責機構認證後，有CE認證才可上市
即使英國已行使許多措施確保脫歐之後的國家穩定發展，脫歐的副作用注定將大幅度影響任何與英國和歐盟相關的國際貿易，尤其是過去在兩地都有生意的公司。雖然額外認證產生的合約及費用或將阻撓貿易商，新的合約及規範也意味著更多機會。最近英國與澳洲的自由貿易協議即是一個絕佳例子——減免關稅使雙方產品的外銷更加有利可圖（雖然有些人擔心澳洲銷入英國的產品可能以低價格打壓當地產品）。現在是世界觀察英國新政策所帶來的效益，且決定於英國或歐盟持續貿易與否的最佳時機。英國脫歐為國家省下了大筆的會費，並重新掌握國家完整主權，但在國家經濟以及貿易站穩腳跟前，脫歐的好壞只能交由時間來表現了。
Following Brexit, the UK underwent a series of changes to its regulations in regard to trading with the EU, Northern Ireland, and other countries starting January of 2021. On January 31st, 2020, Brexit happened. The UK and EU had to address the elephant in the room-- their future trading relationship. The EU is without a doubt, the UK's most important and closest trading partner, and thus long months of negotiations followed. After some background introduction, this article will introduce the different markings, which correspond to different standards respectively to the EU, UK, and Northern Ireland, and what they mean to future international trades both within and outside of the region.
On January 1st of 2021, a UK-EU trade deal finally became effective. With this deal, the UK no longer is required to follow EU product standards, while possibly not being able to export some animal products due to tighter EU laws. While the deal currently keeps any tariffs from being set into place, the possibility of tariffs in the future is not completely out of the picture. If either side was to venture too far away from the shared regulations such as environmental preservation and worker rights, then the opposite side could set tariffs.
On top of this trade deal, the UK has also negotiated deals with most countries that originally had trade deals with the EU. Since the UK no longer is automatically part of EU trade deals, negotiations to maintain the same deals the EU had with these countries were generally rolled over. Of course, some deals, namely one with Japan in 2020 and another with Australia in 2021, were different from the ones the EU originally had with these countries. All but three countries, Montenegro, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, of which the latter two are not part of the World Trade Organization, the UK has finished talking with already.
For the markings that this article talks about, namely the CE, UKCA, and UKNI markings, not all products actually require these markings. Some that don't require the aforementioned markings include cosmetics, foodstuffs, and certain chemicals. However, products ranging from toys to electrical equipment to medical devices all do require these markings, and the impact of international trade caused by the distinctions and regulations regarding markings are of focus here. These marking regulations can be mixed and matched before January of 2022 to allow flexible transitions during the year, and will have more strict distinctions starting then.
First off is the CE marking, which stands for Conformité Européenne, French for European Conformity. This marking shows that the product of which the marking is on conforms to the safety regulations the EU has set for the specific category the product is in. This assessment can be carried out by the manufacturer itself (if located in the EU), or by a notified and certified body that is located in the EU, which would incur fees. Prior to Brexit, the CE marking was used for products that were sold in the UK as well, meaning that international businesses would only need to pay/assign/be contracted with one notified body in order to obtain the necessary markings when they want to put their products onto the EU and UK markets. Now however, with the introduction of the UKCA and UKNI markings, businesses would be required to have assigned representatives for different regions, namely for the UK, Northern Ireland, and the EU, if they wanted to place their products on these respective markets.
The UK is no longer allowed to use CE marking, hence making the UKCA (which stands for UK Conformity Assessment) marking a requirement for products to be listed in the Great Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales) market that formerly required CE markings. This is especially important to know for international businesses that only had one distributor in the EU/UK before. International businesses, if they do not desire to have separate distributors in the different regions, would have to have their distributor (whether in the UK or EU) appoint an authorized representative company in the other region to have a physical presence in order to get a regulation-complying marking to place products on the market. This is because the EU no longer recognizes representatives and responsible persons based in Great Britain, and further means that international companies now have to pay extra fees for extra markings if their products wished to be sold in both regions.
The United Kingdom Northern Ireland (UKNI) marking, is another conformity marking that is required for items that enter the Northern Ireland market from a UK based responsible body. It is a mandatory marking for products that do not have a CE marking. The dynamic here is interesting, since the UKNI marking is only required for UK products entering Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland products in turn do not need additional conformity markings other than any of the mentioned 3 to be placed on the UK market, but do require a CE marking to enter the EU market since UKNI is not recognized in the EU.
A brief summary of the markings and requirements for markets will be listed as such:
- Placing goods on the market in Northern Ireland
- From or through an EU conformity assessment body -> CE
- From or through a UK-based body -> CE and UKNI
- Placing goods on the market in Great Britain
- Manufactured goods placed on the market before end of 2021 -> UKCA and CE
- Goods placed on the market starting 2022 -> UKCA
- Unfettered Access for goods that are qualified in Northern Ireland and placed in the Great Britain market (CE, UKNI)
- Placing goods on the EU market -> CE
Although the UK has gone to great lengths to ensure stability after Brexit, its effects have rippled far and influenced how international trade would be within those regions, especially for businesses that were active in both the UK and EU. While additional charges and contracts may be deterring for businesses, new contracts and regulations also indicate opportunities. The recent Australia-UK free trade agreement for one, is a perfect example of how international trades could actually benefit from these changes (although it is feared that these imports will be too low-priced and could possibly impact the economic performance of similar products). Now is prime time for the world to decide to adjust accordingly, focusing on both or omitting one region, as well as observe how the UK plans to stand its ground with brand new trade deals. Brexit enabled the UK to save on membership costs and obtain full sovereignty, whether the action was worth it in the long run, time will tell.
